Biofilm exopolysaccharides alter sensory-neuron-mediated sickness during lung infection.

Infections of the lung cause observable sickness thought to be secondary to inflammation. Signs of sickness are crucial to alert others via behavioral-immune responses to limit contact with contagious individuals. Gram-negative bacteria produce exopolysaccharide (EPS) that provides microbial protection; however, the impact of EPS on sickness remains uncertain. Using genome-engineered Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) strains, we compared EPS-producers versus non-producers and a virulent Escherichia coli (E. coli) lung infection model in male and female mice. EPS-negative P. aeruginosa and virulent E. coli infection caused severe sickness, behavioral alterations, inflammation, and hypothermia mediated by TLR4 detection of the exposed lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in lung TRPV1+ sensory neurons. However, inflammation did not account for sickness. Stimulation of lung nociceptors induced acute stress responses in the paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei by activating corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons responsible for sickness behavior and hypothermia. Thus, EPS-producing biofilm pathogens evade initiating a lung-brain sensory neuronal response that results in sickness.

P. aeruginosa tRNA-fMet halves secreted in outer membrane vesicles suppress lung inflammation in cystic fibrosis.

Although tobramycin increases lung function in people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF), the density of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) in the lungs is only modestly reduced by tobramycin; hence, the mechanism whereby tobramycin improves lung function is not completely understood. Here, we demonstrate that tobramycin increases 5' tRNA-fMet halves in outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) secreted by laboratory and CF clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa. The 5' tRNA-fMet halves are transferred from OMVs into primary CF human bronchial epithelial cells (CF-HBEC), decreasing OMV-induced IL-8 and IP-10 secretion. In mouse lungs, increased expression of the 5' tRNA-fMet halves in OMVs attenuated KC (murine homolog of IL-8) secretion and neutrophil recruitment. Furthermore, there was less IL-8 and neutrophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid isolated from pwCF during the period of exposure to tobramycin versus the period off tobramycin. In conclusion, we have shown in mice and in vitro studies on CF-HBEC that tobramycin reduces inflammation by increasing 5' tRNA-fMet halves in OMVs that are delivered to CF-HBEC and reduce IL-8 and neutrophilic airway inflammation. This effect is predicted to improve lung function in pwCF receiving tobramycin for P. aeruginosa infection.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The experiments in this report identify a novel mechanism, whereby tobramycin reduces inflammation in two models of CF. Tobramycin increased the secretion of tRNA-fMet halves in OMVs secreted by P. aeruginosa, which reduced the OMV-LPS-induced inflammatory response in primary cultures of CF-HBEC and in mouse lung, an effect predicted to reduce lung damage in pwCF.

Protective Effect of Probiotics against Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection of Human Corneal Epithelial Cells.

Probiotic therapy needs consideration as an alternative strategy to prevent and possibly treat corneal infection. This study aimed to assess the preventive effect of Lactobacillus reuteri and Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis on reducing the infection of human corneal epithelial (HCE) cells caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The probiotics' preventive effect against infection was evaluated in cell monolayers pretreated with each probiotic 1 h and 24 h prior to P. aeruginosa challenge followed by 1 h and 24 h of growth in combination. Cell adhesion, cytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, and antinitrosative activities were evaluated. L. reuteri and B. longum adhered to HCE cells, preserved occludin tight junctions' integrity, and increased mucin production on a SkinEthicTM HCE model. Pretreatment with L. reuteri or B. longum significantly protected HCE cells from infection at 24 h, increasing cell viability at 110% (110.51 ± 5.15; p ≤ 0.05) and 137% (137.55 ± 11.97; p ≤ 0.05), respectively. Each probiotic showed anti-inflammatory and antinitrosative activities, reducing TNF-α level (p ≤ 0.001) and NOx amount (p ≤ 0.001) and reestablishing IL-10 level (p ≤ 0.001). In conclusion, this study demonstrated that L. reuteri and B. longum exert protective effects in the context of corneal infection caused by P. aeruginosa by restoring cell viability and modulating inflammatory cytokine release.

Anti-inflammatory roles of type I interferon signaling in the lung.

Excessive or persistent inflammation may have detrimental effects on lung structure and function. Currently, our understanding of conserved host mechanisms that control the inflammatory response remains incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated the role of type I interferon signaling in the inflammatory response against diverse clinically relevant stimuli. Using mice deficient in type I interferon signaling (IFNAR1-/-), we demonstrate that the absence of interferon signaling resulted in a robust and persistent inflammatory response against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, lipopolysaccharide, and chemotherapeutic agent bleomycin. The elevated inflammatory response in IFNAR1-/- mice was manifested as elevated myeloid cells, such as macrophages and neutrophils, in the bronchoalveolar lavage. The inflammatory cell response in the IFNAR1-/- mice persisted to 14 days and there is impaired recovery and fibrotic remodeling of the lung in IFNAR1-/- mice after bleomycin injury. In the Pseudomonas infection model, the elevated inflammatory cell response led to improved bacterial clearance in IFNAR1-/- mice, although there was similar lung injury and survival. We performed RNA sequencing of lung tissue in wild-type and IFNAR1-/- mice after LPS and bleomycin injury. Our unbiased analysis identified differentially expressed genes between IFNAR1-/- and wild-type mice, including previously unknown regulation of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor signaling, retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) signaling, and necroptosis pathway by type I interferon signaling in both models. These data provide novel insights into the conserved anti-inflammatory mechanisms of the type I interferon signaling.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Type I interferons are known for their antiviral activities. In this study, we demonstrate a conserved anti-inflammatory role of type I interferon signaling against diverse stimuli in the lung. We show that exacerbated inflammatory response in the absence of type I interferon signaling has both acute and chronic consequences in the lung including structural changes.

Pharmacokinetics, quorum-sensing signal molecules and tryptophan-related metabolomics of the novel anti-virulence drug Fluorothiazinon in a Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced pneumonia murine model.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infection is commonly associated with hospital-acquired infections in patients with immune deficiency and/or severe lung diseases. Managing this bacterium is complex due to drug resistance and high adaptability. Fluorothiazinon (FT) is an anti-virulence drug developed to suppress the virulence of bacteria as opposed to bacterial death increasing host's immune response to infection and improving treatment to inhibit drug resistant bacteria. We aimed to evaluate FT pharmacokinetics, quorum sensing signal molecules profiling and tryptophan-related metabolomics in blood, liver, kidneys, and lungs of mice. Study comprised three groups: a group infected with PA that was treated with 400 mg/kg FT ("infected treated group"); a non-infected group, but also treated with the same single drug dose ("non-infected treated group"); and an infected group that received a vehicle ("infected non-treated group"). PA-mediated infection blood pharmacokinetics profiling was indicative of increased drug concentrations as shown by increased Cmax and AUCs. Tissue distribution in liver, kidneys, and lungs, showed that liver presented the most consistently higher concentrations of FT in the infected versus non-infected mice. FT showed that HHQ levels were decreased at 1 h after dosing in lungs while PQS levels were lower across time in lungs of infected treated mice in comparison to infected non-treated mice. Metabolomics profiling performed in lungs and blood of infected treated versus infected non-treated mice revealed drug-associated metabolite alterations, especially in the kynurenic and indole pathways.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 23 Signaling Does Not Increase Inflammation from Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection in the Cystic Fibrosis Bronchial Epithelium.

Background and Objectives: Chronic inflammation due to Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infection in people with cystic fibrosis (CF) remains a concerning issue in the wake of modulator therapy initiation. Given the perpetuating cycle of colonization, infection, chronic inflammation, and recurrent injury to the lung, there are increases in the risk for mortality in the CF population. We have previously shown that fibroblast growth factor (FGF) 23 can exaggerate transforming growth factor (TGF) beta-mediated bronchial inflammation in CF. Our study aims to shed light on whether FGF23 signaling also plays a role in PA infection of the CF bronchial epithelium. Materials and Methods: CF bronchial epithelial cells were pretreated with FGF23 or inhibitors for FGF receptors (FGFR) and then infected with different PA isolates. After infection, immunoblot analyses were performed on these samples to assess the levels of phosphorylated phospholipase C gamma (PLCγ), total PLCγ, phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and total ERK. Additionally, the expression of FGFRs and interleukins at the transcript level (RT-qPCR), as well as production of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 at the protein level (ELISA) were determined. Results: Although there were decreases in isoform-specific FGFRs with increases in interleukins at the mRNA level as well as phosphorylated PLCγ and the production of IL-8 protein with PA infection, treatment with FGF23 or FGFR blockade did not alter downstream targets such as IL-6 and IL-8. Conclusions: FGF23 signaling does not seem to modulate the PA-mediated inflammatory response of the CF bronchial epithelium.

Scorpionfish BPI is highly active against multiple drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from people with cystic fibrosis.

Chronic pulmonary infection is a hallmark of cystic fibrosis (CF) and requires continuous antibiotic treatment. In this context, Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Pa) is of special concern since colonizing strains frequently acquire multiple drug resistance (MDR). Bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein (BPI) is a neutrophil-derived, endogenous protein with high bactericidal potency against Gram-negative bacteria. However, a significant range of people with CF (PwCF) produce anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies against BPI (BPI-ANCA), thereby neutralizing its bactericidal function. In accordance with literature, we describe that 51.0% of a total of 39 PwCF expressed BPI-ANCA. Importantly, an orthologous protein to human BPI (huBPI) derived from the scorpionfish Sebastes schlegelii (scoBPI) completely escaped recognition by these autoantibodies. Moreover, scoBPI exhibited high anti-inflammatory potency towards Pa LPS and was bactericidal against MDR Pa derived from PwCF at nanomolar concentrations. In conclusion, our results highlight the potential of highly active orthologous proteins of huBPI in treatment of MDR Pa infections, especially in the presence of BPI-ANCA.

Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that makes people produce unusually thick and sticky mucus that clogs their lungs and airways. This inevitably leads to recurring bacterial infections, particularly those caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibiotics are needed to treat these infections. However, over time most bacteria build modes of resistance to these drugs and, once multiple drug-resistant bacteria colonize the lung, very limited treatment options are left. Therefore, new therapeutic approaches are desperately needed. Notably, humans themselves express a highly potent antimicrobial protein called BPI (short for Bactericidal/permeability­increasing protein) that attacks Gram-negative bacteria, including multiple drug-resistant strains of P. aeruginosa. Unfortunately, many people with cystic fibrosis also generate antibodies that bind to BPI and interfere with its antimicrobial function. Faced with this conundrum, Holzinger et al. set out to find BPIs made by other animals which might not be recognized by human antibodies and also display a high potential to attack Gram-negative bacteria. Based on specific selection criteria, Holzinger et al. focused their attention on BPI made by scorpionfish, a type of venomous fish that live near coral reefs. Compared to other BPI proteins they investigated, the one produced by scorpionfish appeared to be the most capable of binding to P. aeruginosa via a prominent surface molecule exclusively found on Gram-negative bacteria. Furthermore, when Holzinger et al. tested whether the antibodies present in people with cystic fibrosis could recognize scorpionfish BPI, they found that the BPI completely evaded detection. The scorpionfish BPI was also able to pre-eminently attack P. aeruginosa. In fact, it was even able to potently kill drug-resistant strains of the bacteria that had been isolated from people with cystic fibrosis. This study suggests that scorpionfish BPI could serve as an alternative to antibiotics in people with cystic fibrosis that have otherwise untreatable bacterial infections. Drug-resistant bacteria which cause life threatening conditions are on the rise across the globe, and scorpionfish BPI could be a potential candidate to treat affected patients. In the future, animal experiments will be needed to explore how highly potent non-human BPIs function in whole living organisms.

A compensatory RNase E variation increases Iron Piracy and Virulence in multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa during Macrophage infection.

During chronic cystic fibrosis (CF) infections, evolved Pseudomonas aeruginosa antibiotic resistance is linked to increased pulmonary exacerbations, decreased lung function, and hospitalizations. However, the virulence mechanisms underlying worse outcomes caused by antibiotic resistant infections are poorly understood. Here, we investigated evolved aztreonam resistant P. aeruginosa virulence mechanisms. Using a macrophage infection model combined with genomic and transcriptomic analyses, we show that a compensatory mutation in the rne gene, encoding RNase E, increased pyoverdine and pyochelin siderophore gene expression, causing macrophage ferroptosis and lysis. We show that iron-bound pyochelin was sufficient to cause macrophage ferroptosis and lysis, however, apo-pyochelin, iron-bound pyoverdine, or apo-pyoverdine were insufficient to kill macrophages. Macrophage killing could be eliminated by treatment with the iron mimetic gallium. RNase E variants were abundant in clinical isolates, and CF sputum gene expression data show that clinical isolates phenocopied RNase E variant functions during macrophage infection. Together these data show how P. aeruginosa RNase E variants can cause host damage via increased siderophore production and host cell ferroptosis but may also be targets for gallium precision therapy.

Pharmacological Characters and Toxicity Evaluation of Coumarin Derivative LP4C as Lead Compound against Biofilm Formation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced biofilm infection is difficult to treat and poses a significant threat to public health. Our previous study found a new coumarin derivative LP4C which exerted potent in vitro and in vivo anti-biofilm activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa; however, the underlying molecular mechanism and drug-likeness of LP4C is unclear. In this study, we confirmed that LP4C could inhibit the biofilm in dose-dependent manner without bactericidal activity. The transcriptomic profiling and RT-PCR result revealed that bacterial pyrimidine mediated the inhibitory activity of LP4C. The cell viability was not affected in LP4C treatment groups with the concentration under 200 µg/mL, and no death or toxicity sign was observed in mice treated by 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg LP4C during the three-week test period. Ames test presented that LP4C had no effect on the bacterial reverse mutation. In additional, pharmacokinetic results showed that LP4C was likely to have the orally bioavailable properties. Our data indicate that LP4C is a possible lead compound for the development of new anti-biofilm infection agents against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Genomic insights into extensively drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from a diarrhea case in Kolkata, India.

Aim: To characterize extensively drug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa from a patient with diarrhea. Materials & methods: Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested by the disk diffusion method. The P. aeruginosa genome was sequenced to identify virulence, antibiotic resistance and prophages encoding genes. Results: P. aeruginosa had a wide spectrum of resistance to antibiotics. Genomic analysis of P. aeruginosa revealed 76 genes associated with antimicrobial resistance, xenobiotic degradation and the type three secretion system. Conclusion: This is the first report on diarrhea associated with P. aeruginosa. Since no other organism was identified, the authors assume that the patient had dysbiosis due to antibiotic exposure, leading to antibiotic-associated diarrhea. The in vivo toxicity expressed by the pathogen may be associated with T3SS.

Acquisition of T6SS Effector TseL Contributes to the Emerging of Novel Epidemic Strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen with multiple strategies to interact with other microbes and host cells, gaining fitness in complicated infection sites. The contact-dependent type VI secretion system (T6SS) is one critical secretion apparatus involved in both interbacterial competition and pathogenesis. To date, only limited numbers of T6SS-effectors have been clearly characterized in P. aeruginosa laboratory strains, and the importance of T6SS diversity in the evolution of clinical P. aeruginosa remains unclear. Recently, we characterized a P. aeruginosa clinical strain LYSZa7 from a COVID-19 patient, which adopted complex genetic adaptations toward chronic infections. Bioinformatic analysis has revealed a putative type VI secretion system (T6SS) dependent lipase effector in LYSZa7, which is a homologue of TseL in Vibrio cholerae and is widely distributed in pathogens. We experimentally validated that this TseL homologue belongs to the Tle2, a subfamily of T6SS-lipase effectors; thereby, we name this effector TseL (TseLPA in this work). Further, we showed the lipase-dependent bacterial toxicity of TseLPA, which primarily targets bacterial periplasm. The toxicity of TseLPA can be neutralized by two immunity proteins, TsiP1 and TsiP2, which are encoded upstream of tseL. In addition, we proved this TseLPA contributes to bacterial pathogenesis by promoting bacterial internalization into host cells. Our study suggests that clinical bacterial strains employ a diversified group of T6SS effectors for interbacterial competition and might contribute to emerging of new epidemic clonal lineages. IMPORTANCE Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one predominant pathogen that causes hospital-acquired infections and is one of the commonest coinfecting bacteria in immunocompromised patients and chronic wounds. This bacterium harbors a diverse accessory genome with a high frequency of gene recombination, rendering its population highly heterogeneous. Numerous Pa lineages coexist in the biofilm, where successful epidemic clonal lineage or strain-specific type commonly acquires genes to increase its fitness over the other organisms. Current studies of Pa genomic diversity commonly focused on antibiotic resistant genes and novel phages, overlooking the contribution of type VI secretion system (T6SS). We characterized a Pa clinical strain LYSZa7 from a COVID-19 patient, which adopted complex genetic adaptations toward chronic infections. We report, in this study, a novel T6SS-lipase effector that is broadly distributed in Pa clinical isolates and other predominant pathogens. The study suggests that hospital transmission may raise the emergence of new epidemic clonal lineages with specified T6SS effectors.

Secretory Leucoprotease Inhibitor (SLPI) Promotes Survival during Acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection by Suppression of Inflammation Rather Than Microbial Killing.

Secretory leucoprotease inhibitor (SLPI) has multifaceted functions, including inhibition of protease activity, antimicrobial functions, and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we show that SLPI plays a role in controlling pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Mice lacking SLPI were highly susceptible to P. aeruginosa infection, however there was no difference in bacterial burden. Utilising a model of P. aeruginosa LPS-induced lung inflammation, human recombinant SLPI (hrSLPI) administered intraperitoneally suppressed the recruitment of inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and resulted in reduced BALF and serum levels of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. This anti-inflammatory effect of hrSLPI was similarly demonstrated in a systemic inflammation model induced by intraperitoneal injection of LPS from various bacteria or lipoteichoic acid, highlighting the broad anti-inflammatory properties of hrSLPI. Moreover, in bone-marrow-derived macrophages, hrSLPI reduced LPS-induced phosphorylation of p-IkB-α, p-IKK-α/ß, p-P38, demonstrating that the anti-inflammatory effect of hrSLPI was due to the inhibition of the NFκB and MAPK pathways. In conclusion, administration of hrSLPI attenuates excessive inflammatory responses and is therefore, a promising strategy to target inflammatory diseases such as acute respiratory distress syndrome or sepsis and could potentially be used to augment antibiotic treatment.

[Research advances on the interaction between Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophages and the host].

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common pathogen of burn wound infection. It can encode a variety of virulence factors and is highly pathogenic, which can lead to poor prognosis and high mortality. In order to research a new method to combat Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection, researchers have observed a wide range of interactions between the bacteriophages and the host. Bacteriophages influence and even dominate the structure, movement, and metabolism of host bacteria through a variety of mechanisms, catalyze the evolution of the host, and are also an important factor in host environmental adaptability and pathogenicity. In this paper, the interaction between Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophages and the host is reviewed from the single cell level and the population level. Understanding these interactions could provide new idea for the treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical infections, provides a basis for future development of antimicrobial agents and guides the treatment of burn infections.

Pseudomonas Aeruginosa Lung Infection Subverts Lymphocytic Responses through IL-23 and IL-22 Post-Transcriptional Regulation.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P.a) is a pathogen causing significant morbidity and mortality, particularly in hospital patients undergoing ventilation and in individuals with cystic fibrosis. Although we and others have investigated mechanisms used by P.a to subvert innate immunity, relatively less is known about the potential strategies used by this bacterium to fight the adaptive immune system and, in particular, T cells. Here, using RAG KO (devoid of 'classical' αß and γδ TCR T lymphocytes) and double RAG γC KO mice (devoid of T, NK and ILC cells), we demonstrate that the lymphocytic compartment is important to combat P.a (PAO1 strain). Indeed, we show that PAO1 load was increased in double RAG γC KO mice. In addition, we show that PAO1 down-regulates IL-23 and IL-22 protein accumulation in the lungs of infected mice while up-regulating their RNA production, thereby pointing towards a specific post-transcriptional regulatory mechanism not affecting other inflammatory mediators. Finally, we demonstrate that an adenovirus-mediated over-expression of IL-1, IL-23 and IL-7 induced lung neutrophil and lymphocytic influx and rescued mice against P.a-induced lethality in all WT, RAG γC KO and RAG γC KO RAG-deficient mice, suggesting that this regimen might be of value in 'locally immunosuppressed' individuals such as cystic fibrosis patients.

2-Undecanone derived from Pseudomonas aeruginosa modulates the neutrophil activity.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is a well-known Gramnegative opportunistic pathogen. Neutrophils play key roles in mediating host defense against P. aeruginosa infection. In this study, we identified a metabolite derived from P. aeruginosa that regulates neutrophil activities. Using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, a markedly increased level of 2-undecanone was identified in the peritoneal fluid of P. aeruginosa-infected mice. 2-Undecanone elicited the activation of neutrophils in a Gαi-phospholipase C pathway. However, 2-undecanone strongly inhibited responses to lipopolysaccharide and bactericidal activity of neutrophils against P. aeruginosa by inducing apoptosis. Our results demonstrate that 2-undecanone from P. aeruginosa limits the innate defense activity of neutrophils, suggesting that the production of inhibitory metabolites is a strategy of P. aeruginosa for escaping the host immune system. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(8): 395-400].

The structure-function relationship of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in infections and its influence on the microenvironment.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a human pathogen associated with both acute and chronic infections. While intensively studied, the basic mechanisms enabling the long-term survival of P. aeruginosa in the host, despite massive immune system attack and heavy antimicrobial treatment, remain to be identified. We argue that such infections may represent niche invasions by P. aeruginosa that influence the microenvironment by depleting host-derived substrate and activating the immune response. Bacteria embedded in cell aggregates establish a microenvironmental niche, where they endure the initial host response by slowing down their metabolism. This provides stable, lasting growth conditions with a constant, albeit slow supply of substrate and electron acceptors. Under such stable conditions, P. aeruginosa exhibits distinct adaptive traits, where its gene expression pattern reflects a life exposed to continuous attack by the host immune system and antimicrobials. Here, we review fundamental microenvironmental aspects of chronic P. aeruginosa infections and examine how their structural organization influences their in vivo microenvironment, which in turn affects the interaction of P. aeruginosa biofilm aggregates with the host immune system. We discuss how improving our knowledge about the microenvironmental ecology of P. aeruginosa in chronic infections can be used to combat persistent, hard-to-treat bacterial infections.

Tracking the response to Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in ozone-induced chronic obstructive pulmonary disease mouse models.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is commonly isolated from the sputum of COPD patients. However, the precise role of P. aeruginosa infection in the progression of COPD, especially its role in altering inflammation remains unclear. Here, we designed mice models of COPD infected with P. aeruginosa (PA) and observed dynamic changes of lung structure, lung inflammatory microenvironment, lung function. After infection, the level of mucus secretion peaked on day 3 and remained higher throughout the study period, and the airway remodeling and emphysema was starkly apparent on day 14 and 21. On day 3, interferon-γ and interleukin (IL)- 5 levels increased rapidly, accompanied by elevated T-bet mRNA expression and CD4+T-bet+ cells; at the late stage of infection (days 14 and 21), consistent with increased GATA3 mRNA expression and CD4+GATA3+ cells, IL-4 and IL-13 levels significantly increased; IL-17A level, Foxp3 mRNA expression, CD4+ROR-γt+ cells and CD4+FOXP3+ cells remained at higher levels throughout the course of the infection. Small-airway function showed a decline from day 3 to day 21; large airway function showed a decline on day 14 and 21. Overall, P. aeruginosa infection contributed to the progression of COPD. During the infection, an early Th1-related inflammation gradually shifted to a later Th2-related inflammation, and small-airway function decline occurred earlier than that of large-airway function. On the basis of infection control, the appropriate use of glucocorticoid might slow disease progression by mitigating the enhanced Th2-related inflammation, and small airways could be also an important treatment target in P. aeruginosa -infected COPD patients.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa modulates neutrophil granule exocytosis in an in vitro model of airway infection.

A population of neutrophils recruited into cystic fibrosis (CF) airways is associated with proteolytic lung damage, exhibiting high expression of primary granule exocytosis marker CD63 and reduced phagocytic receptor CD16. Causative factors for this population are unknown, limiting intervention. Here we present a laboratory model to characterize responses of differentiated airway epithelium and neutrophils following respiratory infection. Pediatric primary airway epithelial cells were cultured at the air-liquid interface, challenged individually or in combination with rhinovirus (RV) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, then apically washed with medical saline to sample epithelial infection milieus. Cytokine multiplex analysis revealed epithelial antiviral signals, including IP-10 and RANTES, increased with exclusive RV infection but were diminished if P. aeruginosa was also present. Proinflammatory signals interleukin-1α and ß were dominant in P. aeruginosa infection milieus. Infection washes were also applied to a published model of neutrophil transmigration into the airways. Neutrophils migrating into bacterial and viral-bacterial co-infection milieus exhibited the in vivo CF phenotype of increased CD63 expression and reduced CD16 expression, while neutrophils migrating into milieus of RV-infected or uninfected cultures did not. Individually, bacterial products lipopolysaccharide and N-formylmethionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine and isolated cytokine signals only partially activated this phenotype, suggesting that additional soluble factors in the infection microenvironment trigger primary granule release. Findings identify P. aeruginosa as a trigger of acute airway inflammation and neutrophil primary granule exocytosis, underscoring potential roles of airway microbes in prompting this neutrophil subset. Further studies are required to characterize microbes implicated in primary granule release, and identify potential therapeutic targets.

USP22 promotes pro­inflammatory responses in Pseudomonas aeruginosa­induced keratitis by targeting TRAF6.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA)­induced keratitis is characterized by inflammatory epithelial edema, stromal infiltration, corneal ulceration and can lead to vision loss. The present study aimed to study the effect of ubiquitin­specific protease 22 (USP22) on PA­induced keratitis. Using RT­qPCR and western blotting, significantly increased expression of USP22 was identified in mouse corneas and cultured RAW264.7 cells following PA stimulation. In addition, the results of in vivo experiments, western blot assay and ELISA suggested that the silencing of USP22 attenuated disease progression, downregulated the NF­κB pathway and suppressed the expression of pro­inflammatory cytokines following PA stimulation. Notably, it was identified that the expression of tumor necrosis factor receptor­associated factor 6 (TRAF6) was decreased by silencing of USP22 and USP22 was found to remove lysine 48­linked poly­ubiquitination chains from TRAF6 to stabilize TRAF6 expression and these effects were clearly aggravated following PA infection.

Sensory nerves promote corneal inflammation resolution via CGRP mediated transformation of macrophages to the M2 phenotype through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.

OBJECTIVES: To explore the role of the corneal sensory nerves in Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) keratitis, the synergistic effect between the sensory neurons and macrophages in calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) release, and the functional mechanisms of CGRP-mediated transformation of macrophages to the M2 phenotype. METHODS: Corneal nerve loss, macrophage recruitment, and CGRP expression were evaluated. To explore the synergistic effect between the sensory neurons and macrophages, RAW 264.7 cells were challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), then trigeminal ganglion (TG) sensory neurons were isolated and co-incubated with macrophages, and CGRP expression was tested. To investigate the biological function of cornea neuron-initiated immune responses mediated by CGRP, BIBN 4096BS was used to inhibit CGRP in vivo and α-CGRP was used to simulate CGRP in vitro. The expressions of inflammatory cytokines (IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10), M1 (CD80/CD86), M2 (CD163/CD206) macrophage markers, and signal transducers (PI3K/AKT) were detected. RESULTS: P. aeruginosa infection induced corneal nerve loss, macrophage recruitment, and CGRP up-expression. CGRP was co-localized with macrophages. Co-culture showed that sensory neurons and macrophages can mediate CGRP release. More CGRP was released when the two types of cells were combined to respond to LPS. BIBN 4096BS promoted pro-inflammatory cytokines and inhibited the anti-inflammatory cytokines and signal transducers, while, α-CGRP inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokines and M1 markers and promoted the anti-inflammatory cytokine, M2 markers, and signal transducers. CONCLUSIONS: P. aeruginosa infection induces corneal sensory neuron activation, macrophage recruitment, and CGRP up-expression. The synergistic effect between the sensory neurons and macrophages promotes CGRP release. CGRP inhibits corneal inflammation and promotes the transformation of macrophages to the M2 phenotype through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway.